Exploring Medieval Marginalia—the Middle Ages' Version of Internet Culture

Medieval manuscripts are renowned for their intricate illuminations and calligraphy, but beyond the main text lies a fascinating world of marginalia—decorative and often bizarre illustrations scribbled in the margins of books. These embellishments range from simple doodles to elaborate, surreal scenes that offer unique insights into medieval humour, satire, and social commentary. But what do they mean, and why were they included? Read on to find out!

A hound riding on a rabbit and a rabbit riding on a snail battle with shields and lances. The Breviary of Renaud de Bar (Winter portion), Metz, France, 1302-03

What Is Medieval Marginalia?

Marginalia refers to the notes, comments, and illustrations added to the margins of manuscripts and books. Found across various historical periods, these annotations were particularly striking in medieval manuscripts, where they often included whimsical, grotesque, and fantastical imagery that sometimes starkly contrasted with the solemnity of the main text. These additions served multiple purposes, from entertainment and satire to moral instruction and textual emphasis.

Dr Alix Bovey, speaking to the BBC, highlights the duality of medieval illuminations:

"Medieval illuminators found humour and pathos in mixing things up: comedy next to tragedy, obscenity next to devotion, monsters next to heavenly creatures, order next to disorder."

One recurring theme in medieval marginalia was 'the world turned upside down', a playful yet subversive inversion of social and moral order. This was not just an artistic device but was reflected in real-life medieval festivals such as The Feast of Fools or The Boy Bishop, where children or lower clergy would temporarily take on high-ranking roles. These events allowed brief moments of social inversion and satire, only for the "rightful" order to be restored afterwards.

Rabbits hang a hunter from a decorated letter ‘T’. The Arnstein Passional, Arnstein, Germany, c. 1170s

Three Iconic Examples of Medieval Marginalia

1. Snails: The Most Feared Opponent of Knights?

One of the most puzzling and frequently recurring motifs in medieval marginalia is knights engaging in battle with snails. More often than not, the snail seems to be the victor—sometimes, the knight bows before it, or bystanders appear to beg the knight not to engage.

The meaning remains debated, but Marian Bleeke, a professor of medieval art at the University of Chicago, suggests:

"The basic idea is the overturning of existing or expected hierarchies. It is supposed to be surprising and even funny."

Some theories behind the snail motif include:

• Social satire: The snails may represent social climbers—individuals who, despite their humble origins, gained favour and power in royal courts, threatening the established nobility (symbolised by the knights).
• Cowardice: The image of a mighty knight losing to a slow-moving snail could be a way to mock the chivalric ideal, turning the warrior into a figure of ridicule.
• Symbolism: Some scholars suggest the snail represents resurrection, while others argue that knights battling snails mocked specific factions, such as the Lombards, who ruled modern-day Italy.

Regardless of its exact meaning, the snail motif remains one of the strangest and most enduring symbols of medieval humour.

Knight v Snail VI:  The Gastropod Conqueror (from the Gorleston Psalter, England (Suffolk), 1310-1324

2. Rabbits: From Prey to Predators

Rabbits in the medieval era were a common source of food, clothing, and sport, traditionally symbolising innocence and purity. But in the margins of illuminated manuscripts, they take on a far more aggressive role—hunting humans, wielding weapons, or exacting revenge on their oppressors.

A great example can be found in the Smithfield Decretals, a 14th-century folio of Pope Gregory IX's Decretals, where an entire rabbit-run justice system is depicted. The images show a group of rabbits hunting down a human and his dog and holding a trial in a rabbit-run court before sentencing the hunter and hound to execution. 

This role reversal plays directly into the medieval fascination with turning the world upside down, where prey becomes the hunter, and the powerful fall before the weak.

Rabbits bind and gag a dog, the Smithfield Decretals, France, S. and London; 1275-1315

3. Marginalia as a Descriptive Tool

Not all marginalia were purely for humour—some served practical and mnemonic functions by emphasising key points in the text. In John of Arderne's 1370 medical book, Practica Chirurgiae (Practice of Surgery), marginalia helped make medical knowledge more accessible and memorable. For instance, next to a description of a growth, a small illustration of an owl appears. This isn't just random—the Latin word "bubo" means both swelling/growth and owl. The image served as a visual pun to reinforce the meaning of the passage.

Marginal illustrations – including the 'bubo' from Practica Chirurgiae (Practice of Surgery)

Similarly, in a book about Saint Birgitta of Sweden, a corpse illustration appears next to a passage discussing spiritual death, emphasising the text's moral weight through imagery.

From the works of Birgitta of Sweden, made for the brothers of Syon Abbey, via British Library

These marginalia functioned much like modern infographics, drawing attention to important content in an engaging way.

Were Medieval Scribes the Original Meme Creators?

While the exact meaning behind many of these whimsical and often absurd illustrations remains a mystery, one thing is clear: humour, satire, and irreverence are timeless. In a BBC interview, Sarah J. Biggs from the British Library's Department of Medieval Manuscripts reflected on the satirical nature of marginalia, stating:

"It reflects the idea of mocking the powerful, mocking the clergy, mocking everybody actually."

Were medieval scribes the first meme creators? They certainly captured the essence of meme culture—blending humour, satire, and shared cultural references into small, highly memorable images. In that sense, medieval marginalia may very well be the world's oldest memes.